The Great Pyramid of Khufu.

[Some notes by Anthony Holmes (somewhere in South Africa) written to Mike Pelletier (somewhere in Canada)]

Before entering into a dialogue with you on the origin and purpose of the Great Pyramid or any other ancient artefact for that matter it is best to define the terms esoteric, fantastic and main stream. The correct meaning of esoteric is ‘limited to a select group’. Unfortunately esoteric has become a synonym for fantastic (the product of fantasy). Esoteric is incorrectly used in a derogatory sense when referring to esoteric theories, especially in relation to ancient Egypt.

The main stream theorists are the archaeologists and historians at the opposite end of the spectrum from those of the select group. They represent the conventional wisdom of the time. It is however for each individual to decide whether the currently espoused theories are acceptable or whether they are merely based on presupposition. Naturally the majority sheepishly follow the main stream into the fold without question, so it is up to the select few to challenge currently held beliefs and to put forward alternative possibilities. Such suggestions may be received with disdain or ridicule by those whose status and income requires them to support convention, but such rejection should not prevent those with divergent theories from offering them for discussion.

In seeking explanations for the unexplained, one should be permitted to read any books/articles or watch TV ‘documysteries’; but reader beware – there is a great deal of rubbish out there. So, , when enjoying the tenuous connections put forward by these ‘factasy’ writers always check for the tell-tale signs of invention. Such phrases as ‘statistics reveal’; ‘scientists have ascertained’; ‘it is well known’; ‘by pure chance’ are sure indicators.

The linking of one mystery to support another is often a clue to a lack of solid evidence. [quote David H Lewis from ‘Mysteries of the Pyramid’ to which you refer: (my comments in italics) "This unusual venture into these secret chambers was costly, not only in a monetary aspect, but in the four lives that were lost in the few short years that followed the expedition - due to this entry and the information gained. (a conspiracy within a conspiracy) Although nothing was removed from these chambers, the microfilms have since proven to be a priceless entity to those who place money in a higher regard than human life. (What does that mean?) It is entirely doubtful now that these micro film clips will ever be displayed for the general public and will remain as guarded as the spacecraft now in captivity at our Air Force Base.” (Another conspiracy for support)]

So let’s get to that huge pile of stone called the Great Pyramid (GP) of Giza and first review what we know, what we think we know and what we don’t know.

We know:

• Materials of construction:

The GP is built mainly from approximately 2,300,000 limestone blocks which were quarried in the immediate vicinity of the Giza plateau. Originally the GP was cased in fine Tura limestone which came from a second quarry across the Nile. The interior chambers are constructed from granite transported to site from Aswan, far to the south of Giza. The blocks of stone vary in mass with the larger granite blocks weighing up to 80 tonnes or more each (1 tonne = 1000kg). The estimated total mass is 5.9 million tonnes.

• Accuracy of construction:

Very precise. The overall dimensions are 146.5metres high by 230.4metres side length. The ratio of the perimeter of the base to the height equals 2П (two pi) with 0.05% accuracy. The base is horizontal and flat to within 15mm. The four sides of the base have an average error of only 58mm in length. The sides of the square base are oriented to the cardinal points within 4 minutes of arc (based on true north) and the corners are squared to within 12 seconds of arc. The mean opening of the joints is estimated at 0.5mm. The coordinates of the GP are 29° 58′ 44.68″N 31° 8′ 2.58″E. [The longitude is irrelevant as the Greenwich meridian hadn’t been established and the proximity of its latitude to 30°N probably has no significance, being the position of a limestone plateau on the west bank of the Nile].

There are many other physical dimensions well measured and documented and this is where fact ends and speculation begins.

What do we think we know?

It was a tomb! Who told you that, Mike? Show me the body!

There are no inscriptions. In the so-called King’s Chamber there is an empty, damaged stone chest often called a sarcophagus, but no proof that it was used as such. (Note: sarcophagus from the Greek σαρκοφάγος which means ‘flesh eating’ and should only be used when conclusively shown to have contained a body). The term King’s Chamber itself is a modern label.

It was built by/for King Khufu. How do you know?

There are a couple of red painted quarryman’s hieroglyphic daubs in the relieving chamber above the King’s Chamber that may refer to the name of Khufu. The hieroglyphs may have been faked by Richard Howard Vyse in 1837, (Vyse was infamous for his use of gunpowder as an archaeological tool!), but the position of the hieroglyphs makes forgery unlikely. However the presence of the daubs does not prove the GP was built at the time of Khufu. The tomb of Hetepheres, the mother of Khufu was discovered close to the GP. Hetepheres tomb was undisturbed since antiquity, but it appears to be a reburial performed in ancient times. The sarcophagus was sealed but empty. Having your coffin buried next to an edifice doesn’t mean your son built it! Shards and remains were found in the vicinity dated to the 4^th Dynasty, the time of Khufu. So what – I say!

It was built by Egyptians. Most researchers think so, especially Egyptian archaeologists. There is no proof that anyone else was involved, but the absence of proof is not proof of absence! The buildings in Dubai were designed and project-managed by European and North American architects and engineers. The physical work was done by Taiwanese, Indian and Korean and other labourers. Ask a local in Dubai and you will be told they were built by the Emeratis and in a century no-one will dispute that.

In summary the GP may have been used during the reign of King Khufu but there is no conclusive evidence it was designed and built at that time, or that it was built by Egyptians and no proof it was designed to be used as a tomb.

What don’t we know about the GP?

Almost everything!

As is the case with any mystery, by not knowing very much we are open to even the most fantastic suggestions. An entire industry of creative fiction has been established on the diverse theories of ‘How? Who? Why? and When?’ of the GP. The least proven concept, but in my opinion the most intriguing aspect is the link between the mystery of the GP and the idea that an ancient body of advanced knowledge pre-existed the ‘Egyptian’ culture. It is variously described a repository of (essentially scientific) information that has been lost or remains hidden to this day.

Let’s try the How? question first:

Look at the facts concerning the GP. The volume of the GP including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic meters. Building this in 20 years (the supposed length of Khufu’s reign) would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Similarly, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night.

Over the years, pencils, slide rules, calculators and computers have been used to do the sums. Possibly between 10,000 and 20,000 labourers were involved. The only technology around was the lever, the ramp and the roller. Have you seen the GP? It really is awe-inspiring! The internal chambers are a wonderful work of precision. This was not built by a bunch of part-time farmers waiting for the flood to subside so they could sow their crops! But I get ahead of myself.

I have posed the following question to Egyptologists and never have I received a satisfactory reply. The question is: “With the limits to the technology that we assume prevailed, why did they choose to build with such huge stone blocks? Would it not have been easier and quicker to build with small blocks? [The same question applies to many other monolithic and megalithic structures around the world.] A 100 tonne stone block is a bitch to carve out, transport from the quarry, off-load, chisel to perfect dimensions, lift up 60 meters or more and place precisely in a predetermined space using only levers, ramps and rollers. As an engineer I would prefer 1000 blocks of 100kg each, especially if I had plenty of man power. It’s no sweat to carry and place a cube of 10x100kg blocks per side. So what is the only feasible answer?

They did it because they could!

It must have been easy for them, easier that my 1000x100kg block cube – and yet… we don’t know of any technology, even today, that would make it easy. Theories have been proposed as to how the GP was constructed. Outside ramps, spiral ramps, inside ramps and combinations of these. Some suggest pulleys, but there is no other indication that pulleys were invented by 2,500 BC in Egypt. We are left with an undisclosed technology, some method of making the blocks lighter to make them easy to handle. We therefore have to consider reducing the effect of gravity. I will not go into all the possibilities that have been put forward to achieve that. You may already know about sonic power, the negative mass of white gold powder, telekinesis and similar concepts. (By the way, I love the one-liner a physics lecturer put to his class: “Will anyone who believes in telekinesis please raise my hand!”) The actual technology is less important than the probability of its existence, because it suggests the likelihood of the body of ancient wisdom we touched on previously.

{I would like to mention at this point the cast-in-situ theory. [This bit was added after the note had been sent to Mike. The possibility was raised by Ishtar in relation to the Bosnian pyramids.] It was proposed by Dr Joseph Davidovits in the 1980's and refined by Prof. Michel Barsoum in 2006. The theory proposes that each block was cast from limestone slurry that was caused to set like concrete. I have certain misgivings. When one looks at the lime stone blocks very closely there is no suggestion of any formwork or shuttering that might have been used as a mould to make a casting. There is an ancient quarry nearby that produced stone blocks and the quarrying technique is still evident. One can see that chisels and wooden wedges were used to separate the big blocks. The geological signature identifies the main blocks as having come from that quarry, although there is some argument about the lack of stratification of micro fossils in the pyramid blocks. The exterior cladding was a very fine-grained, white lime-stone (called Tura) which has been traced to a quarry across the Nile. That leaves the huge granite blocks in the interior of the pyramid. A visit to the granite quarries at Aswan not only provides a match to the type and colour of the granite (which as you know varies considerably), but abandoned quarry works at Aswan show exactly how the granite blocks were quarried. There is a dock that was used to load the blocks onto rafts and with the north flowing current of the Nile, transport to the site at Giza could be easily achieved. So I don't see the evidence or even the necessity for postulating a cast-in-situ theory. I believe the builders used huge blocks of stone and placed them in position making use of, in my opinion, a technology that we have lost or fail to understand.}

Let’s consider the question of ‘Who?’

It was the Egyptians, but only on the basis that the definition of ‘Egyptians’ includes anyone who was in Egypt at the time. The supposition of an ancient wisdom does however require the presence of someone capable of controlling it and directing operations. The locals (all 20,000 of them) probably provided the muscle and a couple of them daubed Khufu’s name on a few blocks. The technically talented individual or individuals in charge may also have had the capability to travel the globe (anti-gravity does that for you!) and could have used their knowledge in other lands and on other sites. So (I hear you cry), where did they come from and where did they go?

My instinct rejects little green men from other worlds. If they exist and are so advanced why would they bother with us? There are other possibilities that exercise the mind. At this point I can only advise you to read up on Multiverse theory and on Multidimensional concepts. A bit heavy if you don’t have much high math. Instinctively I reach for an explanation that suggests that a plane of higher knowledge exists and that we poor folk called homo sapiens or ‘saps’ for short, occasionally experience a ‘leakage’ from that higher plane to ours, possibly deliberately directed from the higher plane and channelled by those who have the talent to do so. The likely answer is therefore that ‘they’ were never here in the physical sense, but were the inspiration in the minds of the locals that enabled them to do remarkable (to us) things. Such inspiration could be the source of genius for the outstanding scientists and artists recorded in history.

The third question in our conundrum is ‘Why’?

At this stage I’m going to disappoint you, Mike. I have absolutely no idea! The GP is an incredibly complex building. The other pyramids on the Giza plateau are externally physically similar, but the internal structure is fundamentally a cheap copy of the GP and not even close.

The orientation suggests a relationship to the sun and to the stars. Whenever historians don’t know what’s going on, they say, “It had religious significance!” Well maybe it did have, but as with Stone Henge we can only speculate the form that the religious or stellar observance took until we are made privy to more data.

It is suggested by those who study these things that the king’s body was laid to rest for a limited period while his spirit built up the energy it needed to travel to stars. We have all sorts of explanations as to why the GP was used for this purpose, the current thinking being that the narrow shafts leading from the chambers were pointed at certain stars to ‘project’ the king’s soul towards Sirius or Orion or wherever! This very year 2012AD we might see where these shafts lead us. But as Egyptologists well know, ancient Egyptian belief suggested that souls were able to pass through solid stone in the form of false doors in tombs, so why build shafts.

I could put forward the theories of many others, weird, fascinating and strange as they might be. Could it be a dimensional map of the future (ie from 2,500 BC forwards) left by star people? Perhaps it is a power generator. It sharpens razor blades and preserves meat (not proven). Its dimensions create certain energy levels (this is possible, but not proven). The fact is that it may be generating a form of energy that we are unable to measure.

I believe there is a reason for the GP and it may not be a reason we would recognise - a reason emanating from a different plane of consciousness. Perhaps one day…

Just to mention David H Lewis’ book about immense chambers deep beneath the pyramid. In my opinion it is as far-fetched and as unbelievable as HG Wells’ ‘The Time Machine’. The sketches in the Lewis book are kind of Egyptian in style, but the whole thing is too ridiculous. A chamber built to house microfilms to contain all the solutions to what ails the world! (Why microfilm? Why not silicon chips or even more advanced tech? Maybe microfilm was the leading edge of technology when Lewis wrote.) His remarkable descriptions may have more to do with his references to sipping Bourbon to wet his dry throat than to reality.

There are natural voids under the GP and under the Sphinx. Ground penetrating radar has shown this to be so, but limestone is prone to this phenomenon. Water from the annual inundation of the Nile would seep through the limestone and the acidic water caused by rotting organic material would dissolve the limestone deep beneath the surface. Are there artificially enhanced voids? Probably! Adrian Gilbert (British author) certainly has made claims in that respect.

But consider the lack of logic in the following claim:

‘An advanced civilization, talented and wise, donated its store of ancient wisdom to an aggressive and possessive race of humans who got to the top of the food chain by dominating every other species by force; a human race that has used virtually every invention and discovery since the Stone Age for the purpose of war.’ (There were bronze swords while ploughs were still made of wood, and atoms bombs preceded power generators.) An advanced civilization would understand that conflict and domination, greed and violence are part and parcel of the human genome. Any additional technology would only serve to increase conflict on earth.

While you are looking for ancient wisdom beneath the GP check out the Emerald Tablet, Thoth’s gift to mankind. It’s worth reading, though not for serious study.

So let’s get to ‘When?’

One theory proposes that the GP was built before Khufu’s reign and he usurped it as a monument to himself. The support for this theory is tenuous to say the least, but it suggests that all three pyramids on the Giza plateau existed before Khufu. To judge by other pharaoh’s actions, each king tried to outdo the previous one in construction achievements. There is a reason for this apart from ego. Each king wanted his name to spoken by the living after he died in order to protect his spirit in the after-life, so the bigger the monument the greater the probability of this happening. It is difficult to imagine why Menkaure’s pyramid is smaller than his father Khafre and Khafre’s pyramid in turn is smaller than his father Khufu (the GP). If however the pyramids pre-existed the 4^th Dynasty, then Khufu would have grabbed the biggest first, Khafre the next and Menkaure would be stuck with the smallest.

Conventional wisdom is that the order of pyramid construction was:

1: Djozer’s stepped pyramid at Saqqara

2: Sekhemhet’s stepped pyramid at Saqqara (not built – only the surrounds)

3: Sneferu’s Meidum pyramid

4: Sneferu’s Bent pyramid at Dashur

5: Sneferu’s North (Red) pyramid at Dashur

6: Khufu’s Great Pyramid at Giza. The pinnacle of pyramid construction!

7: Djedefre’s pyramid at Abu Rawash

8: Khafre’s Pyramid at Giza.

9: Menkaure’s pyramid at Giza

10: and so on…….There are about 35 major and a hundred or so minor pyramids in Egypt and many more in Sudan.

The time between the death of Djozer and the start of Khufu’s reign is only 60 years. The technological jump from Djozer’s stepped pyramid to Khufu’s GP is astonishing. The GP is about 2½times the height and nearly 8times the mass. It is far advanced in complexity and accuracy, all in 60 years; and then, just as surprisingly the technology began to fade away again. It’s like going from a bicycle to a jet fighter and back to a bicycle. It is this kind of anomaly that breeds alternative suggestions as to the origin of the technology, whence it came and to where it went. But it would all be possible if talented and skilled design-architects gave of their knowledge and time, and then left the locals to their own devices. The half-life of construction knowledge would be about one or two generations and the knowledge would gradually be corrupted and lost.

To me, the most logical answer to ‘when’ is the time of Khufu (c.2550BC), but the achievement would require superior construction techniques and oversight by advanced technicians.

So Mike, I hope you enjoyed this little dissertation. Let me have your reaction and maybe further questions.

Kind regards

Tony Holmes

January 2012

Tragic loss of ancient manuscripts

Napoleon's 'Description de L'Egypte' lost to fire amid clashes
Ahram Online, Sunday 18 Dec 2011

Thousands of irreplaceable manuscripts at Cairo's Institute for
Scientific Research are lost to fire amid attack military attack on
protesters at nearby Cabinet building

A fire that erupted on Saturday in Egypt’s Institute for the
Advancement of Scientific Research has resulted in the loss of several
precious manuscripts, according to Zein Abdel-Hadi, head of Egypt’s
Libraries and Archives Department, which has taken possession of many
of the books rescued from the fire. The original manuscript of
Napoleon’s historic “Description De L'Egypte” was reportedly among the
losses.

Young revolutionaries rushed into the institute – which is located
next to the Cabinet building, the site of ongoing clashes between
security personnel and anti-government protesters – as soon as the
fire erupted in hopes of rescuing the thousands original manuscripts
housed there. Nearly 30,000 books were rescued out of a total of
around 196,000 in the institute’s collection, estimated Abdel-Hadi,
who went on to commend the young activists’ courage.

The “Description De L'Egypte” was initially drawn up by the team of
French scientists who accompanied French empire-builder Napoleon on
his invasion of Egypt (1798-1801). The 20-volume book was originally
entitled “Description of Egypt, or the Collection of Notes and
Research Done in Egypt during the French Campaign by Napoleon
Bonaparte.”

After the scientists’ return to France, the French interior minister
at the time, Jean Antoine Schpetal, organised a special committee
mandated with collecting and publishing all the material, which was
eventually published in ten volumes of engravings, nine volumes of
research, and one atlas.

The volumes are considered among the most important historical works
of the early nineteenth century.

Ancient Egypt in an Hour

I have recently compiled a concise history of the 3,000 years that the ancient Egyptian culture existed and prospered in the Nile valley. The 10,000 word or one hour read is illustrated and provides an overview of the subject for those busy people who do not have the time or patience to wade through lengthy volumes on the subject. Below is a press release that describes the ebook and the series of History in an Hour. I highly recommend you to look into historyinanhour.com

Ancient Egypt In An Hour

LONDON - For immediate release

A new iPhone app on Ancient Egypt has been launched this week by History In An Hour and specialist electronic publisher Collca.

Available from Apple's iTune and iBook stores, Ancient Egypt In An Hour by Anthony Holmes is three thousand years of Ancient Egyptian history summarised in just sixty minutes of reading: hieroglyphs, mummification, Tutankhamen, Rameses the Great and Cleopatra are all here - and much more in just one hour.

The title is targeted at commuters, students and the curious who want to learn the facts and context about Ancient Egypt but don’t have much time. It features an engaging narrative, photos and timeline.

Founder of History in An Hour, Rupert Colley established the ebook series after he built an impressive but largely unread library of history books. He spotted a gap in the market for an introductory but straight narrative that could capture the essence of a subject with comparatively little effort.

"Many people want an introduction to different periods of history," he said, "but don’t always have time to read daunting books of 600 pages with 35 page introductions."

History In An Hour takes you straight in, to the point in sixty minutes, with no embedded links to divert the attention. Then, having absorbed the basics, the reader may feel inspired to explore further.

Ancient Egypt In An Hour is the eighth in the History In An Hour series of ebooks to be made available as an iPhone or iPad app, or eBook.

Mike Hyman, Managing Director of Collca said:

"We had been looking for highly relevant eBook partners to work with in producing apps and found History In An Hour. We are very pleased with how the partnership has worked to produce Ancient Egypt In An Hour. Other titles from the series include World War Two In An Hour, Nazi Germany In An Hour, The Cold War In An Hour and 1066 In An Hour."

Quotes:

"The format certainly makes for an ideal ebook ... This is the way of the future of history publishing." Andrew Roberts, historian.

"Can I just say at this point that I think the idea of ebooks you can read in an hour is a fantastic one?" Editor, History Times.

"I must congratulate you on a great idea." The Army Children Archive.

"By the time my train journey was over I genuinely felt more knowledgeable. Good stuff, I look to the other titles coming out." Buyer review on the App Store.

"I really like the history in an hour series. Feel like I'm reading a million pages a week now." Twitter follower.

"I've just used a couple of your free to download resources and I was hugely impressed with them." History teacher, Wales.

Collca is a brand-new electronic publisher specialising in book-derived and other reference and educational apps initially for the Apple iPad, iPhone & iPod Touch.

History In An Hour ebooks can be downloaded from historyinanhour.com, Apple's iBook store, Barnes and Noble, Smashwords and Stanza on various different e-book formats (MobiPocket, epub, Sony Reader, Palm Doc, and Apple's iPhone and iPad.

Contact:

Rupert Colley (History In An Hour) rupert@historyinanhour.com

Mike Hyman (Collca) mike.hyman@collca.com

Anthony Holmes (Author) mwtonyho@mweb.co.za

The Third Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt

By Anthony Holmes

Note: The dates below are BCE (Before the Common Era)

The history of ancient Egypt is divided into several periods. Some periods were eventful and memorable for their achievements. The Old Kingdom remains famous for its pyramids and sphinx; the New Kingdom is remembered as the time of Tutankhamun and Rameses the Great, when tombs were excavated in the Valley of the Kings and massive stone temples were constructed. The Hellenistic Period was the time of Cleopatra VII, arguably the most famous ruler of the Ptolemy Dynasty. There were other periods that did not enjoy the same fame or notoriety. One of these is the so-called “Third Intermediate Period” that occupied four centuries between the era of the Rameside kings of the New Kingdom and the start of the final throw of the dice for ancient Egypt called The Late Period.

The New Kingdom began when the Hyksos invaders were driven out of Egypt. It was a great period which saw the rise of Tuthmose III and Rameses II, the two great warrior kings, but by the time Rameses VI came to the throne in 1141 the disintegration of the great Egyptian empire had begun. Little of note can be reported about the reigns of the remaining five kings of the New Kingdom who all chose the name Rameses, probably in the hope that the magic of the name would rub off on them. When Rameses XI died the New Kingdom came to an end and Egypt entered the Third Intermediate Period which lasted 400 years from 1064 to 664.

Period and Dynasties Dates

Predynastic Period: Naqada I & II & Dynasty 0 4000 to3000

Early Dynastic Period Dynasties 1 & 2 3150 to 2584

Old Kingdom Dynasties 3 to 6 2584 to 2117

First Intermediate Period Dynasties 7 to 11 part 1 2117 to 2066

Middle Kingdom Dynasties 11 part 2 to 12 2066 to 1650

Second Intermediate Period Dynasties 13 to 17 1650 to 1549

New Kingdom Dynasties 18 to 20 1549 to 1069

Third Intermediate Period Dynasties 21 to 25 1064 to 664

Saite Period Dynasty 26 664 to 525

Late Period Dynasties 26 to 31 525 to 332

Hellenistic Period Macedonians & Ptolemies 332 to 30

Roman Period Egypt ruled by Rome 30 to 395CE

In order to understand the Third Intermediate Period it is necessary to examine the rise and fall of the other kingdoms and empires of Asia and their impact on Egypt. By 1064, the Hittite kingdom, Egypt’s great enemy and the kingdom of Mittani, Egypt’s great ally had both collapsed and from 1020, the kingdom of Israel was the most powerful trading kingdom in Asia under its kings Saul, David and Solomon. After Solomon died the kingdom of Israel split into two; Israel in the north and Judah in the south. These were two kingdoms of similar people sharing a single religion. At times they were allies and at other times they were enemies, but throughout they shared one common enemy; the kingdom of Damascus across the Jordan River.

The Phoenician maritime traders expanded their activities in the Mediterranean Sea, founding colonies along the North African coastline as far as Spain. The most powerful Phoenician colony was Carthage, in modern Tunisia. The trade between the Phoenicians and Egypt prospered, with Egypt exporting fine linen to Tyre, where it was dyed purple. The increasing use of the Aramaic language in preference to Akkadian brought with it an increase in the demand for papyrus rather than clay tablets and Egypt was the sole supplier of papyrus, a scarce commodity at that time.

THE MIDDLE EAST APPROX. 1000 BCE

While Egypt’s trade prospered, the Assyrians (named for the ancient city of Assur, their original capital) became the region’s dominant military power. From their national home between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, the Assyrians surged forth with their military might. The Assyrian army continued to use heavy chariots with a three man crew, the design of which was pioneered by the Hittites. With the availability of larger breeds of horses they were also able to introduce cavalry, a new concept to middle-eastern warfare. The Assyrians conquered the various tribes of Mesopotamia and then swept westwards, over-running the area. The kingdoms of Israel, Judah and Damascus survived, but under Assyrian overlord-ship. Frequent rebellions in these kingdoms resulted in Assyria reducing two of them to the status of provinces. Only Judah was left as a kingdom. By 720 the Assyrian Empire stretched from the Persian Gulf into Anatolia (Turkey) in the north and to the Egyptian border in the southwest. Conflict with Egypt was inevitable.

The Third Intermediate Period began in 1064 with the founding of the 21^st Dynasty when Nesibanebdjedet, the former governor of the delta city of Tanis acceded to the throne. The political control of Egypt had always been difficult because it was such a long, narrow land. Strong rulers were able to exert their control over the whole land from the Nile Delta to the first cataract at modern day Aswan (about 1,000 kms), but the country was frequently divided in two, with control of the delta region under a northern king and the control of the long southern region under a different king. The 21^st Dynasty lasted 124 years and saw Egypt split into two (again!). Lower Egypt (the delta region in the north) was under the rule of the King in the delta city of Tanis, while Upper Egypt (the south) was controlled by the High Priest of the god Amun at Thebes. Fortunately this time the division of the land did not result in conflict. In fact there was a high degree of co-operation between the two areas. During his 53 year reign, the fourth king of the 21^st Dynasty Pasebkhanut I ruled from Tanis as King and his brother Menkheperre ruled from Thebes as High Priest. Understandably, researchers find it to be a period of confusion. The sixth king of the 21^st Dynasty, Osorkon was of Lybian background. The Lybians were traditional enemies of Egypt, but now their bloodline was infused into in the so-called royal family of Egypt. History records eight kings during the 21^st Dynasty.

The 22^nd Dynasty commenced in 948 with the accession of Shoshenq 1 and the reunification of Egypt (again!). The hereditary role of High Priest of Thebes as a ruler of Southern Egypt in his own right was abolished and instead it became a position held by the son of the reigning king (a sort of ‘Prince of Wales’ appointment). This consolidation worked for a number of years. Egypt reasserted its military force and at least two military campaigns were recorded under Shoshenq 1, one of which took place in the Levant and is recorded in the Bible.

Regrettably personal ambition prevailed and Harsiese, the High Priest of Amun did not wait for his turn on the throne, but took full kingly status for himself and passed the pontificate of Amun to his own son. So once again Egypt was divided. Royal and priestly titles were taken and conferred prolifically in Tanis, Memphis and Thebes. It was a royal supermarket! At this time several parallel kingships existed. The 23^rd Dynasty commenced in 867 and the 24^th Dynasty operated from 735, both running in parallel with the existing 22^nd Dynasty. A Biblical passage that refers to the ‘kings of Egypt’ was in all probability a reference to this period. My all-time favourite king name for this period is King Takelot.

It was the power of Kush, Egypt’s southern neighbour from Nubia (Sudan) that was to see a change in the traditional line of kings of Egypt. Piye, the king of Kush installed his sister as heir to the position of God’s Wife of Amun, a most influential female appointment, without encountering any opposition.

The 25^th Dynasty called ‘Rule of Kush’ began in 752. King Piye moved north from Kush, defeating all in his way, but having succeeded in his mission of subduing Egypt, he left Egypt under the control of his newly appointed vassals and withdrew to his home base in Nubia. His successor Shabaka was less accommodating. He took up residence in Memphis in Egypt and curtailed the power of the vassal lords. Shabaka ruled as King of the lands of Egypt and Kush, but not without some internal resistance from the Egyptian princes of the Delta region who resented the Kushite invasion. With a little patience this period might have seen the resurgence of the power of Egypt, but it was not to be! The next king, Shabataka overreached himself by marching a combined Nubian and Egyptian army into Asia Minor to challenge the Assyrians. The combined forces were soundly beaten by the mighty Assyrian forces. Shabataka’s impetuous challenge awakened the Assyrians to the potential (and the weakness) of Egypt/Kush and although Shabataka’s successor Taharqa followed a strictly domestic strategy, the ultimate fate of the Kushite kings was looming.

The Assyrian king Esarhaddon attacked Egypt twice and on his second incursion he defeated and subdued Egypt as far as Memphis. Taharqa fought back and helped by the unexpected death of Esarhaddon regained a foothold in Lower Egypt. It was not for long. The next Assyrian king, Assurbanipal renewed the Assyrian surge and drove Taharqa all the way back to Napata, beyond the third cataract in Nubia. The Kushites tried one more time to reassert their rule over Egypt and managed to reclaim territory as far as Thebes, but Assurbanipal drove Taharqa’s successor Tanutamun back into Nubia. By 656 the 25^th Dynasty had ended. The Nubian royal line continued to rule upper Nubia until the 4^th Century AD, but the rule of Egypt passed into the hands of the Delta princes who had supported the Assyrians against the Kushites.

The Third Intermediate Period ended with the death of Tanutamun and the accession of Psametik I of the 26^th Dynasty. This was the beginning of 60 years of rule of the Delta Princes from Sais, called the Saite Period, after which The Late Period commenced.

The four centuries of the Third Intermediate Period presented Egypt and its southern neighbour Kush with every opportunity to consolidate and re-assert the nation’s role as a powerful force in the region. It was a leading manufacturer of linen, papyrus and producer of wheat, but internal fighting for leadership and the lack of a single unifying force on the throne wasted that opportunity. With Assyria in power, Persia to follow and still later Macedonia and ultimately Rome rising up to take over the leadership of the known world, Egypt would never again achieve the heights of the golden age of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom.

TAILS* OF ANCIENT EGYPT

*No, it’s not a misprint! We spend a great deal of study-time examining various aspects of the ancient Egyptian iconography from head to foot, but how often do we consider the importance of the tail? There are several depictions and references to ‘tails’ and they deserve more than a passing glance.

The first and by far the most important tail is the bull’s tail. The gods and the kings wore a bull’s tail as part of their regalia and it may be seen attached to every portrait or statue of a divinity or a king. The tail was hung onto the king’s belt during the coronation ceremony. The symbolism is clearly designed to imbue the king with the power and potency of the bull.

When the king is seated and the back of the chair precludes showing the tail behind him, the artist shows the bull’s tail draped to the front of the chair or throne. Interestingly Akhenaten, the monotheist is often depicted with a bull’s tail attached to his waist-band, showing that he did not totally eschew all the ancient traditions. As a further coronation blessing, the king was anointed with fat obtained from the powerful tail of a crocodile to impart the divine power of Sobek, the crocodile god. The heb-sed, which means ‘the festival of the tail’, usually held after the king had been on the throne for thirty years, was designed to ensure the king still had the strength to rule his people. The heb-sed ceremony renewed the king’s strength and ensured that his ‘bull’s tail’ retained its earlier potency. Included in the king’s list of honours was mut em ef, translated as ‘bull of his mother’, a further reference to the king’s strength and virility.

The cult of the Hap (or Apis bull) can be traced back to the early pharaonic period and it survived for nearly three millennia. A black bull with special markings was considered to be the animal form of Ptah, a creator god who dwelt in the underworld and was the patron of all craftsmen. In his aspect of the bull, Ptah was revered in Saqqara, and it was here that the Hap lived and died in his sacred stall, tended by the priests of Ptah and surrounded by his harem of cows. Upon his death, the Hap was mummified, placed in a huge sarcophagus and lowered into an underground labyrinth. In its many depictions, the Apis bull is shown to be well-endowed with its normal reproductive equipment and additionally to have a great, long tail.

The tail sported by Anubis, the canine god of mummification is probably the most beautiful of the tails of ancient Egypt. The elongated ears, the snout and the huge brush of the canine creature are all exaggerated by the artists. The tail that droops over the side of the shrine found in Tutankhamun’s tomb is wonderful example of Anubis’ rear appendage. The black desert dog-fox that frequents the tombs and the pyramids is supposed to have been the inspiration for the deity, but the live specimens I have seen in Egypt do not compare to Anubis when it comes to the magnificence of their tails.

The tail of the Sphinx, carved in the ancient stone of Giza, can be clearly seen as it curls round the lion’s haunch. Some years ago the suspicion that a chamber of ancient wisdom lay beneath the Sphinx waxed strongly (has it ever waned?). The prospect of entering the world’s most famous sculpture through its rear end presented us with another famous tale of a tail. Regrettably for some, the entrance next to the tail of the Sphinx proved to be shallow and unrewarding, however in 1988 Zahi Hawass reported that he had entered an obscure horizontal tunnel into the Sphinx where he found a pit inundated with water. Perhaps this was one of the taller of the ‘tales’ of ancient Egypt.

The side members of funerary beds or couches used in mummification were invariably crafted in the form of animals and frequently the tails of these animals, whether realistic or not, curved over the bed itself in a stylised arch. In this case the tail represented a form of protection for the body of the deceased.

One tail that presents a puzzle is the one seen attached to the panther or cheetah skin worn by the high priest. The panther skin is normally shown on papyrus and depicted on walls with its spots (actually rosettes) clearly painted by the artist, but the tail is invariably shown with hoops or bands. A leading zoologist I consulted was unable to identify a feline, past or present, whose pelt would be of sufficient size and that had a coat with spots (or rosettes) and a tail with bands. I think we must assume that the artists were taking licence and going for speed rather than accuracy.

The last tail to which I would like to refer is that of Seth, the murderer of his brother Osiris. When Seth is depicted in his animal form he appears to be a combination of the features of several creatures. He has the body of a grey hound, an elongated snout, pricked up ears with flat tips, almond-shaped eyes and a long, fork-ended tail standing up from its body. The fork-ended tail has come down through the ages as a sign of evil, as has the name of the evil deity Seth that transmutes into Satan in modern language.

There may be other tails that carry a tale, so to speak. Perhaps stories lurk in the tail of Bastet the cat or in that of Sekhmet the lioness and if you discover them, be sure to let me know.